AP Psychology · Strategy Series · FRQ Precision Tool
Vocabulary
Precision Guide
Using the wrong term on an AAQ or EBQ response loses points even when the underlying idea is correct. This guide targets the 43 distinctions most likely to matter — not as a glossary, but as a precision tool: each entry shows the exact FRQ context where the distinction appears and contrasts correct vs. incorrect usage side by side.
43 Vocabulary Distinctions
AAQ + EBQ Focused
Searchable
Unit 1
Biological Bases of Behavior
7 distinctionsNeurotransmitter vs. Hormone
Unit 1DistinctionBoth are chemical messengers, but NTs transmit signals across a synapse between neurons. Hormones travel via the bloodstream to target organs throughout the body. Same chemical can act as both depending on context (e.g., norepinephrine).
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks involving biological explanations and mechanisms
"Serotonin acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, modulating mood by influencing synaptic transmission in the limbic system."
"Serotonin is a hormone that travels through the body to improve mood." (Serotonin primarily functions as an NT in the CNS — calling it a hormone here is imprecise.)
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System
Unit 1DistinctionSympathetic = fight-or-flight: increases heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion. Parasympathetic = rest-and-digest: slows heart rate, constricts pupils, activates digestion. They are complementary, not opposing "on/off" systems.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ when stress physiology or arousal is central to the argument
"The sympathetic nervous system activated during the stressor, mobilizing the body's fight-or-flight response and increasing arousal."
"The parasympathetic nervous system caused her heart rate to spike when she encountered the threat." (Parasympathetic decreases heart rate — that's sympathetic activation.)
Broca's Area vs. Wernicke's Area
Unit 1DistinctionBroca's (left frontal): speech production. Damage → non-fluent aphasia (halting speech, comprehension often intact). Wernicke's (left temporal): language comprehension. Damage → fluent but semantically incoherent speech, poor comprehension.
FRQ contextAAQ or EBQ involving neurological cases, localization of function, or language processing research
"Damage to Broca's area impairs speech production; the patient understands language but struggles to produce fluent speech."
"Damage to Broca's area caused the patient to produce fluent but meaningless speech." (That describes Wernicke's aphasia.)
Cerebrum vs. Cerebellum
Unit 1DistinctionCerebrum (cerebral cortex): higher-order cognition — thinking, perception, memory, language, decision-making. Cerebellum: motor coordination, balance, and some procedural learning. Separate structures with distinct functions.
FRQ contextLocalization questions; biological explanations of cognitive impairment; motor skill learning
"Procedural motor skills like riding a bike are largely coordinated by the cerebellum."
"The cerebellum is responsible for her reasoning and language difficulties after the accident." (Reasoning and language = cerebrum.)
Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
Unit 1DistinctionExcitatory NTs (e.g., glutamate) increase the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Inhibitory NTs (e.g., GABA) decrease that likelihood. Neither fires the neuron directly — they influence the probability of reaching action potential threshold.
FRQ contextBiological bases; anxiety disorders (GABA involvement); explaining effects of psychoactive drugs
"GABA's inhibitory effects reduce neuronal activity, which is why benzodiazepines that enhance GABA function reduce anxiety."
"GABA fires neurons to calm the brain." (GABA reduces firing likelihood — it does not "fire" neurons.)
Dopamine vs. Serotonin
Unit 1DistinctionDopamine: reward, motivation, motor control. Dopamine dysregulation — especially excess activity in certain pathways — is associated with schizophrenia; deficit associated with Parkinson's and reduced motivation in addiction recovery. Serotonin: mood regulation, sleep, appetite. Low levels associated with depression and OCD. Different systems with different disorders.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks on biological explanations of disorders and treatment mechanisms
"SSRIs increase serotonin availability and are used to treat depression; antipsychotics reduce dopamine activity to address schizophrenia symptoms."
"Schizophrenia involves a serotonin imbalance." (Schizophrenia is primarily associated with excess dopamine, not serotonin.)
Nature vs. Nurture
Unit 1DistinctionNature = genetic/biological influences. Nurture = environmental/experiential influences. The modern view is interaction, not opposition — heritability does not mean "unaffected by environment." Avoid writing as if either determines outcome alone.
FRQ contextespecially relevant for EBQ claim framing and AAQ application tasks explaining developmental or behavioral outcomes
"While genetic predisposition (nature) increases vulnerability to depression, environmental stressors (nurture) influence whether that vulnerability is expressed."
"Depression is caused by nature, not nurture." (Too absolute; interaction is the accurate framing.)
Unit 2
Cognition
8 distinctionsEncoding Failure vs. Storage Failure vs. Retrieval Failure
Unit 2DistinctionEncoding failure: information was never entered into memory (e.g., didn't pay attention). Storage failure: information was encoded but is no longer retained in long-term memory. Retrieval failure: information is stored but cannot be accessed (tip-of-tongue; wrong cue).
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks explaining forgetting mechanisms or memory-based interventions
"Participants who were distracted during the encoding phase showed more forgetting due to encoding failure, not storage decay."
"They forgot the information because it decayed from memory." (This assumes storage failure without ruling out encoding failure or retrieval failure.)
Proactive Interference vs. Retroactive Interference
Unit 2DistinctionProactive: old learning interferes with new (forward). Retroactive: new learning interferes with old (backward). Key: which is disrupting which? The direction word is the answer.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ when a study involves language learning, multi-phase learning, or memory interference
"Learning Spanish after French impaired recall of French vocabulary — this retroactive interference occurs because the newer learning disrupts older stored material."
"Learning Spanish after French is an example of proactive interference." (Proactive = old disrupts new. Here the new language disrupts the old — that's retroactive.)
Recall vs. Recognition
Unit 2DistinctionRecall: retrieve information without external cues (fill-in-the-blank, essay). Recognition: identify information from options (multiple choice). Recognition is generally easier because the options themselves serve as retrieval cues.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ when discussing memory measurement methods or how test format affects performance
"The recognition test produced higher scores because seeing the answer options provided retrieval cues unavailable during free recall."
"Students recognized the material but couldn't recall it on the essay — showing poor recognition memory." (The word "recognized" here means recall failure, not recognition test performance.)
Assimilation vs. Accommodation
Unit 2DistinctionAssimilation: fitting new information into an existing schema without changing it (a child calls every four-legged animal "dog"). Accommodation: changing the schema to incorporate information that doesn't fit (child creates a new category for "cat").
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ when Piaget's cognitive development theory is relevant
"When the child first called a horse a 'dog,' they were assimilating the new animal into their existing dog schema."
"Learning the word 'horse' required the child to assimilate their dog schema." (Creating a new category = accommodation, not assimilation.)
Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing
Unit 2DistinctionBottom-up: perception driven by raw sensory data; features are detected before the whole is recognized. Top-down: prior knowledge, context, and expectations shape what we perceive. Reading relies heavily on both, but context errors are top-down.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks involving perceptual or reading research
"Readers who completed 'The cat sat on the _' faster when the word was 'mat' than 'car' demonstrates top-down processing — contextual expectation primed the perceptual system."
"Misreading 'the' twice in a sentence is a bottom-up error." (Missing repeated words due to expectation = top-down processing overriding raw sensory input.)
Inattentional Blindness vs. Change Blindness
Unit 2DistinctionInattentional blindness: fail to notice a clearly visible object because attention is directed elsewhere (gorilla experiment). Change blindness: fail to detect a change between two sequential views of a scene (person swap in conversation).
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks on attentional limitations or eyewitness reliability
"Participants who failed to notice the gorilla in the counting task demonstrated inattentional blindness — their attentional focus on counting prevented registration of the unexpected object."
"Failing to notice when the experimenter changed during a conversation is inattentional blindness." (That's change blindness — a sequential change, not an object present during active attention.)
Availability Heuristic vs. Representativeness Heuristic
Unit 2DistinctionAvailability: judge probability by how easily examples come to mind. Representativeness: judge probability by how closely something matches a prototype. Both are mental shortcuts; they produce different types of errors.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks on decision-making errors and cognitive bias
"Overestimating plane crash risk after seeing news coverage reflects the availability heuristic — memorable media events inflate perceived probability."
"Assuming a quiet librarian is more likely a librarian than a farmer reflects the availability heuristic." (Judging by fit to a stereotype = representativeness, not availability.)
Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Unit 2DistinctionFluid: capacity for novel reasoning, pattern recognition, working under time pressure. Tends to decline with age after early adulthood. Crystallized: accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, learned skills. Tends to remain stable or increase with age.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks involving age-related cognitive research
"Older adults outperforming younger adults on vocabulary tests reflects high crystallized intelligence, even as fluid reasoning speed may have declined."
"Older adults' vocabulary advantage shows that fluid intelligence increases with age." (Vocabulary is crystallized, not fluid.)
Unit 3
Development & Learning
7 distinctionsPositive / Negative Reinforcement vs. Positive / Negative Punishment
Unit 3DistinctionPositive = adding something. Negative = removing something. Reinforcement = behavior increases. Punishment = behavior decreases. These are two independent dimensions: positive/negative describes the operation; reinforcement/punishment describes the effect on behavior.
FRQ contextamong the most common application concepts across AAQ and EBQ; especially useful in scenario-based analysis tasks
"Removing the noise when the rat pressed the lever — and observing increased lever-pressing — is an example of negative reinforcement: an aversive stimulus is removed, strengthening the behavior."
"Negative reinforcement is the same as punishment — both involve something negative happening." (Negative reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases it. "Negative" refers to removal, not unpleasantness.)
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning
Unit 3DistinctionClassical: involuntary, reflexive responses conditioned by pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned one. Operant: voluntary behaviors shaped by consequences (reinforcement or punishment). The type of response (involuntary vs. voluntary) is the key differentiator.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ when identifying a study's learning mechanism and applying course concepts to explain behavior
"The dog salivating to the bell is classical conditioning — an involuntary physiological response conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus."
"Teaching a dog to sit using treats is classical conditioning." (Voluntary behavior shaped by a consequence = operant conditioning.)
Generalization vs. Discrimination (conditioning)
Unit 3DistinctionGeneralization: conditioned response extends to stimuli similar to the CS (dog salivates to other bells). Discrimination: organism learns to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli (responds only to the specific bell used in training).
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ when explaining learning transfer, phobia development, or treatment generalization
"A child who develops fear of one dog and then fears all dogs is demonstrating stimulus generalization."
"A child who learns to fear only aggressive dogs and not gentle ones is showing generalization." (Responding selectively to specific stimuli = discrimination.)
Continuous Reinforcement vs. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Unit 3DistinctionContinuous: reinforce every instance of the behavior (fastest acquisition, fastest extinction). Partial: reinforce some instances (slower acquisition, more resistant to extinction). Variable-ratio schedules produce the highest response rates and greatest resistance to extinction.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks on gambling behavior, habit persistence, or reinforcement schedule design
"Slot machines use a variable-ratio schedule, which is why gambling behavior is highly resistant to extinction — the unpredictable reward keeps the behavior active."
"Continuous reinforcement is the best way to maintain a habit long-term." (Continuous reinforcement produces faster extinction once rewards stop — partial schedules produce more durable behavior.)
Object Permanence vs. Conservation
Unit 3DistinctionObject permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist when not visible (develops ~8–12 months; sensorimotor stage). Conservation: understanding that quantity is unchanged by rearrangement in appearance (develops ~7 years; concrete operational stage). Different stages, different concepts.
FRQ contextAAQ or EBQ on cognitive development research with infant or child samples
"A 4-year-old insisting the taller glass has more water despite watching the same amount being poured demonstrates a lack of conservation, not object permanence."
"Infants in the sensorimotor stage lack conservation." (Infants lack object permanence; conservation is a preoperational/concrete operational concern.)
Secure vs. Insecure Attachment
Unit 3DistinctionSecure: caregiver is consistently responsive; child uses caregiver as safe base, shows distress at separation, is comforted on return. Insecure types: avoidant (caregiver unresponsive; child appears indifferent) and anxious/ambivalent (inconsistent caregiver; child is clingy and hard to comfort on return).
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ when an article discusses early attachment and later developmental outcomes
"Children with secure attachment are more likely to explore their environment because the caregiver provides a reliable safe base."
"Children with avoidant attachment are strongly attached to their caregivers." (Avoidant attachment involves behavioral distancing from the caregiver, not strong attachment.)
Observational Learning vs. Classical Conditioning
Unit 3DistinctionObservational learning (Bandura): acquire behaviors by watching and imitating others; requires attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. No direct stimulus-response pairing required. Classical conditioning requires direct pairing of stimuli to produce a conditioned response.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks on aggression, pro-social behavior, or media effects; also relevant for identifying learning mechanisms
"Children who watched an adult hit the Bobo doll and then imitated the behavior demonstrated observational learning — no direct reinforcement of the children's behavior occurred."
"The Bobo doll experiment is an example of classical conditioning." (There is no neutral-stimulus pairing or conditioned response — it's observational/social learning.)
Unit 4
Social Psychology, Personality, Motivation & Emotion
7 distinctionsConformity vs. Compliance vs. Obedience
Unit 4DistinctionConformity: match group norms without a direct request. Compliance: agree to a direct request from a peer (no authority difference). Obedience: follow explicit commands from an authority figure. The source of social influence distinguishes the three.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks when group behavior or authority is central to the study
"Milgram's participants followed the experimenter's commands to administer shocks — this is obedience to authority, not conformity, as there was an explicit command from a perceived authority figure."
"Asch's line experiment shows obedience — participants followed the group." (No explicit commands from authority; participants matched group judgment = conformity.)
FAE vs. Actor-Observer Bias vs. Self-Serving Bias
Unit 4DistinctionFAE: over-attribute others' behavior to disposition, under-attribute to situation. Actor-observer: we explain our own behavior situationally and others' dispositionally. Self-serving bias: attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors. Read who is doing the explaining about whom.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks applying attribution theory to study findings
"Assuming a fellow driver who cut you off is reckless (not late and panicked) is the fundamental attribution error — you over-attribute their behavior to personality rather than circumstance."
"Blaming your own failure on bad luck while crediting your success to skill is the fundamental attribution error." (That's self-serving bias — ego protection, not FAE.)
Group Polarization vs. Groupthink
Unit 4DistinctionGroup polarization: group discussion causes individuals' initial views to become more extreme (but still in the same direction). Groupthink: desire for harmony suppresses critical evaluation, causing flawed consensus. Polarization amplifies existing views; groupthink silences dissent.
FRQ contextespecially useful for EBQ claims about group decision-making and AAQ application tasks on group processes
"After the group discussion, initial moderate opinions became more extreme, consistent with group polarization."
"Everyone agreeing without debate because they didn't want conflict is group polarization." (Suppressed dissent for harmony = groupthink.)
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Unit 4DistinctionIntrinsic: motivated by internal satisfaction, interest, or personal challenge. Extrinsic: motivated by external rewards or to avoid punishment. The overjustification effect: adding extrinsic rewards to an already intrinsically motivated activity can undermine intrinsic motivation.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks on motivation and reward system effectiveness
"Students who were paid to read books they previously enjoyed showed reduced reading after the payments stopped — the overjustification effect had replaced intrinsic with extrinsic motivation."
"Paying students to read builds intrinsic motivation over time." (External rewards can undermine, not build, intrinsic motivation — see overjustification effect.)
James-Lange vs. Cannon-Bard vs. Schachter-Singer
Unit 4DistinctionJames-Lange: we feel emotion because we notice our physiological response (we see the bear, run, then feel afraid). Cannon-Bard: physiological response and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently. Schachter-Singer (two-factor): physiological arousal + cognitive label = emotion.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks when emotion regulation or arousal is central to the study
"The bridge study supports Schachter-Singer's two-factor theory — men on the suspension bridge misattributed physiological arousal from fear as romantic attraction."
"The bridge study shows James-Lange theory — participants felt their heart race and then decided they were attracted." (The cognitive misattribution of arousal is the key feature of Schachter-Singer, not James-Lange.)
Id vs. Ego vs. Superego
Unit 4DistinctionId: operates on the pleasure principle; unconscious drives for immediate gratification. Ego: operates on the reality principle; mediates between id demands and real-world constraints (largely conscious). Superego: moral conscience; internalized social standards (partly unconscious).
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ application tasks involving psychoanalytic theory or comparisons across theoretical perspectives
"According to Freud, the ego uses defense mechanisms to manage the conflict between the id's immediate desires and the superego's moral constraints."
"The id prevents people from acting immorally." (The superego represents moral constraints; the id pursues gratification regardless of morality.)
Stereotype vs. Prejudice vs. Discrimination
Unit 4DistinctionStereotype: cognitive belief or generalization about a group. Prejudice: affective attitude (positive or negative) toward a group based on group membership. Discrimination: behavioral treatment of people differently based on group membership. The three-component model: cognition → affect → behavior.
FRQ contextespecially useful for EBQ claims about group bias and AAQ application tasks on inter-group behavior
"Believing that group X is less competent (stereotype) may produce negative feelings toward them (prejudice), which can then manifest as treating them differently in hiring decisions (discrimination)."
"Treating people differently because of their group membership is prejudice." (Behavioral differential treatment = discrimination; prejudice is the affective attitude.)
Unit 5
Mental Health
7 distinctionsSchizophrenia vs. Dissociative Identity Disorder
Unit 5DistinctionSchizophrenia: psychotic disorder involving hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking (positive symptoms) and flat affect, avolition (negative symptoms). DID: dissociative disorder — presence of two or more distinct personality states. These are completely different disorders often confused due to media misrepresentation.
FRQ contextespecially useful for EBQ claims about psychological disorders and AAQ application tasks on psychopathology
"Hearing voices and holding false beliefs about government surveillance are positive symptoms of schizophrenia — not evidence of multiple personalities."
"Schizophrenia means having a split personality." (Split/multiple personalities = DID, not schizophrenia. "Schizo" means split from reality, not a split self.)
Positive Symptoms vs. Negative Symptoms (Schizophrenia)
Unit 5DistinctionPositive symptoms = something added to normal functioning (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech). Negative symptoms = something removed from normal functioning (flat affect, alogia, avolition, social withdrawal). "Positive" and "negative" refer to addition/subtraction, not desirability.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ tasks distinguishing schizophrenia symptom types and evaluating treatment effectiveness
"Antipsychotic medications are more effective at reducing positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) than negative symptoms (flat affect, social withdrawal)."
"Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are the less severe ones." (Positive and negative refer to added/removed functioning — not severity or desirability.)
Systematic Desensitization vs. Flooding
Unit 5DistinctionBoth are exposure-based therapies for phobias, but they differ in pace. Systematic desensitization: gradual exposure through an anxiety hierarchy, paired with relaxation training. Flooding: immediate, prolonged exposure to the most feared stimulus. Both rely on extinction of the conditioned fear response.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ tasks identifying treatment approaches and comparing effectiveness
"The therapist created a hierarchy from least to most feared stimuli and taught relaxation — this is systematic desensitization, not flooding."
"Gradual exposure therapy and flooding are the same technique." (Gradual hierarchy + relaxation = systematic desensitization; flooding is immediate full exposure.)
CBT vs. Psychoanalytic vs. Humanistic Therapy
Unit 5DistinctionCBT: identifies and restructures maladaptive thought patterns and behaviors; present-focused, evidence-based. Psychoanalytic: explores unconscious conflicts and early experiences; insight-focused. Humanistic (person-centered): creates conditions for self-actualization; emphasizes unconditional positive regard, present experience.
FRQ contextespecially useful in AAQ/EBQ tasks identifying a study's theoretical framework and evaluating treatment effectiveness
"Challenging a patient's belief that failure means worthlessness and replacing it with more balanced thinking is a CBT technique — not psychoanalytic, which would instead explore the developmental origins of that belief."
"A therapist helping a client explore their childhood to understand current fears is using CBT." (Exploring past unconscious origins = psychoanalytic. CBT focuses on current thought patterns.)
Major Depressive Disorder vs. Bipolar Disorder
Unit 5DistinctionMDD (unipolar): persistent depressive episodes without manic episodes. Bipolar disorder: alternating episodes of depression and mania (or hypomania). The presence of manic episodes — elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, impulsive behavior — distinguishes bipolar from MDD.
FRQ contextespecially useful for EBQ claims about mood disorder treatment and AAQ application tasks on mood disorders
"SSRIs are a first-line treatment for MDD but are used cautiously in bipolar disorder, where they can trigger manic episodes without a mood stabilizer."
"Bipolar disorder is a more severe form of depression." (Bipolar is a distinct disorder involving manic cycles — not simply "more depression.")
Anxiety Disorders vs. OCD vs. PTSD
Unit 5DistinctionIn DSM-5, OCD and PTSD are no longer classified as anxiety disorders — each has its own category. Anxiety disorders include GAD, panic disorder, phobias, social anxiety. OCD involves obsessions and compulsions driven by intrusive thoughts. PTSD is triggered by trauma exposure. All involve fear/anxiety but have distinct mechanisms and criteria.
FRQ contextuseful for precision in EBQ claims about disorder classification and AAQ application tasks involving diagnostic categories
"For precision: OCD and PTSD have their own distinct DSM-5 categories rather than being grouped with anxiety disorders — though all three involve fear or anxiety as a central feature."
"OCD is an anxiety disorder." (Technically inaccurate per DSM-5, though the distinction matters more for clinical precision than as a focal AP exam point. AP Psychology emphasizes disorder features and treatment over classification taxonomy.)
Biomedical Model vs. Biopsychosocial Model
Unit 5DistinctionBiomedical: illness is explained exclusively by biological factors — genetics, pathogens, neurochemistry. Biopsychosocial: illness results from the interaction of biological, psychological (thoughts, emotions, behavior), and social (relationships, culture, environment) factors. The biopsychosocial model is the dominant framework in contemporary health psychology.
FRQ contextespecially useful for EBQ claims about health interventions and AAQ application tasks requiring a biopsychosocial framework
"A biopsychosocial explanation of depression includes genetic vulnerability (biological), negative cognitive patterns (psychological), and social isolation (social) — not biology alone."
"The biopsychosocial model says mental illness is caused by brain chemistry." (That's the biomedical model. Biopsychosocial explicitly integrates psychological and social factors alongside biological ones.)
Research Methods
Research Methods & Design
7 distinctionsRandom Assignment vs. Random Sampling
ResearchDistinctionRandom assignment: participants are randomly placed into conditions after being selected. Protects internal validity — controls for confounding variables. Random sampling: participants are randomly selected from a population. Protects external validity — supports generalizability. A study can have one, both, or neither.
FRQ contextespecially relevant for AAQ research method and generalizability questions; commonly tested in research design MCQs
"Random assignment allows the researchers to make causal claims; random sampling would allow the results to generalize beyond this sample."
"Random sampling means each participant was equally likely to be assigned to each condition." (That's random assignment. Random sampling means every member of the population had equal probability of being selected for the study.)
Reliability vs. Validity
ResearchDistinctionReliability: the measure produces consistent results across time, raters, or administrations (precision). Validity: the measure actually measures what it claims to measure (accuracy). A measure can be reliable without being valid (consistent but wrong), but a valid measure must have some reliability.
FRQ contextrelevant for AAQ questions on measurement quality and generalizability; also useful when evaluating EBQ source methods
"A bathroom scale that consistently reads 5 kg too heavy is reliable but not valid — it gives consistent but inaccurate measurements."
"A measure is valid if it gives the same result each time." (Consistency across administrations = reliability, not validity.)
Correlation vs. Causation
ResearchDistinctionA correlation shows that two variables are statistically related. It does not show that one causes the other. Two problems: directionality (which direction does causation go?) and third-variable problem (a hidden variable may cause both). Only a true experiment with random assignment can support causal claims.
FRQ contextmost frequently relevant for AAQ statistical interpretation tasks, EBQ evidence analysis, and research-design MCQs
"The positive correlation between ice cream sales and drowning rates does not mean ice cream causes drowning — a third variable (hot weather) likely drives both."
"Because r = +0.82, we can conclude that X causes Y." (No matter how strong the correlation, causation cannot be inferred without experimental manipulation and random assignment.)
Independent Variable vs. Dependent Variable
ResearchDistinctionIV: what the researcher manipulates or assigns to participants; the presumed cause. DV: what the researcher measures; the presumed effect. Always give the operationalized version in your answer — the specific condition or measurement procedure, not the abstract construct.
FRQ contextdirectly relevant for AAQ variable identification; also appears in research-design MCQs
"The independent variable is whether participants received the 8-week mindfulness training or were placed on a waitlist. The dependent variable is participants' scores on the validated anxiety inventory at post-test."
"The IV is mindfulness and the DV is anxiety." (Too vague — the grader wants the operationalized version: the specific manipulation and measurement.)
Experimental Group vs. Control Group
ResearchDistinctionExperimental group: receives the treatment or intervention being studied. Control group: does not receive the treatment; provides a baseline for comparison. Without a control group, any change in the experimental group cannot be attributed to the treatment — it may be due to time, expectation, or other factors.
FRQ contextuseful for AAQ design and variable identification tasks, and when discussing generalizability
"Without a control group, we cannot determine whether improvement was due to the therapy or to the natural passage of time and spontaneous recovery."
"The control group received a lower dose of the treatment." (A reduced-dose condition would usually function as a comparison condition rather than a no-treatment control — it does not establish a clean baseline against which to evaluate the full treatment.)
Confounding Variable vs. Extraneous Variable
ResearchDistinctionExtraneous variable: any variable other than the IV that could affect the DV. Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that systematically varies with the IV — it provides an alternative explanation for the results. All confounds are extraneous variables, but not all extraneous variables are confounds.
FRQ contextuseful for AAQ generalizability and application tasks; also relevant in EBQ when acknowledging limitations in reasoning
"If the treatment group also received more therapist attention than the control group, therapist contact is a confounding variable — it varies with the IV and could explain the improvement."
"Room temperature during testing is a confounding variable." (Unless temperature systematically varied between conditions, it is an extraneous variable that adds noise, not a confound.)
Construct vs. Operational Definition
ResearchDistinctionConstruct: the abstract psychological concept being studied (e.g., "depression," "aggression," "intelligence"). Operational definition: the specific, measurable procedure used to define and observe that construct in this study. Without operationalization, abstract constructs cannot be scientifically studied or replicated.
FRQ contextespecially important when identifying variables in AAQ — the answer must be the operationalized version, not the abstract construct name
"Aggression was operationally defined as the number of times a participant pressed a button to administer a noise blast to an opponent — this transforms the abstract construct into a measurable behavior."
"The dependent variable was aggression." (This names the construct, not the operational definition — the grader wants the specific measurement procedure.)
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